Empire in Retreat
August 1942
Formation of the Indian National Army
The Indian National Army was formed by Subash Chandra Bose, an Indian nationalist committed to the violent overthrow of the British in India. The one...
May 1972
Implementation of ‘Ugandanisation’ policy
In efforts to publicise the policy of 'Ugandanisation' General Idi Amin published the following statement in an advertisment published in The Times, "I wish to...
September 1944
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks
The Quit India movement accelerated political developments in India. With the Congress intent on gaining full independence it was imperative for Jinnah and the Muslim...
September 1945
Defeat of the Indian National Army
The Indian National Army was formed by Subash Chandra Bose, an Indian nationalist committed to the violent overthrow of the British in India. The one-time...
November 1946
Creation of the Constituent Assembly of India
The creation of a Constituent Assembly of India was demanded by the Indian National Congress as far back as 1936. However, it would only come...
June 1947
Appointment of Cyril Radcliffe and creation of the Boundary Commission
Cyril Radcliffe has since the bloody partition been popularly characterised as being well meaning but ultimately out of his depth. Determining the line of partition...
March 1940
Lahore Resolution
Muhammad Ali Jinnah made a speech at a meeting of the All-India Muslim League declaring the party would campaign for an independent nation of Pakistan...
March 1942
Cripps Mission
The Cripps Mission was a British Cabinet mission to India seeking to gain the support of Indian politicians for Britain's war effort in exchange for...
1-4 August 1947
Gandhi visits Kashmir
Mohandas Gandhi visited Kashmir amidst political turmoil. The princely state was rocked by anti-monarchist agitation led by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah of the National Conference (NC)....
4 August 1972
President Idi Amin declares an expulsion order on British Ugandan Asians
Excerpt from The Times article titled 'Uganda says no room for 40,000 Asians with British passports': "President Idi Amin announced tonight that Uganda will ask...
5 August 1972
90 Day Expulsion Notice Goes Into Effect
Philip Short reporting on the Ugandan Asian expulsion for the Ugandan Argus stated: "So many accusations have been made against Uganda's Asian community during the...
6 December 1971
Speech of President Amin to a Meeting of Leaders of the Asian Community in Uganda
Excerpt from Amin's inflammatory speech against Ugandan Asians: "...It is particularly painful in that about 70 years have elapsed since the first Asians came to...
8 August 1947
Map showing ‘roughly’ the boundary Radcliffe proposes to demarcate in his award sent to the Punjab Governor’s Secretary
Cyril Radcliffe proposes rough boundaries for India and Pakistan. These proposals would broadly conform to the finalised Boundary Award although it is now impossible to...
8 August 1947
Nizam of Hyderabad offers to negotiate treaty with dominion of India
The Nizam of Hyderabad remained steadfast in his position of retaining the state's sovereignty. Following failed talks on 11 July, the Nizam wrote to Mountbatten...
8 July 1947
Sir Cyril Radcliffe arrives in Delhi
Cyril Radcliffe arrived in Delhi where the Boundary Commission began its consultation with Indian representatives. The Times reported the following: "SIKHS AND PUNJAB BOUNDARY -...
8 July 1947
Sikhs mount protest day of prayer against the threat to split their community under partition plan
The Shiromani Akali Dal made the call to Sikhs to carry out a day of prayer in protest at any decision that would threaten the...
9 August 1947
Derailment of Pakistan special train at Bhatinda in East Punjab
Co-ordinated attacks against Muslims in East Pakistan saw trains being targetted. A number of unsuccessful attempts were made to blow-up or derail trains in the...
9 August 1972
Final Order declared making the expulsion order an official edict
Idi Amin's final order on the expulsion of Ugandan Asians was met with condemnation from around the world as the following article in The Times...
9 August 1947
Viceroy’s Staff Meeting informed that Radcliffe would be ready to announce the Punjab award ‘that evening’; Viceroy questions desirability of publishing it ‘straight away’
Just days before the transfer of power, Radcliffe was ready to publish the boundary awards that would determine the new borders between India and Pakistan....
9 August 1947
Governor of the Punjab, after consultation with Governors-designate of East and West Punjab, advises against arrest of Sikh leaders implicated in terrorist activities
The Punjab was experiencing major unrest leading up to partition. The province was directly ruled by Governor Evan Jenkins from March 1947 due to the...
9 july 1947
Attlee writes to Mountbatten about the Governor-Generalship of India
Attlee informed Mounbatten that despite Mountbatten not being able to become Governor-General of Pakistan, his role in the same position for India would be looked...
10 August 1947
Governor of Bengal says it is essential to have twenty four hours notice of Boundary Award
Governor of Bengal, Frederick John Burrows, 1946 Source: Walter Stoneman, National Portrait Gallery, CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 The Governor of Bengal, Frederick John Burrows contacted Viceroy...
11 July 1947
Mountbatten meets Hyderabad delegation
Hyderabad was a large princely state whose ruler, the Nizam Osman Ali Khan, was strongly in favour of retaining his sovereignty despite the Indian National...
11 August 1947
Joint Defence Council Order published
The Joint Defence Council was created to organise the allocation of military resources to India and Pakistan. This was a difficult task since much of...
11 August 1947
Jinnah elected President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan
Muhammad Ali Jinnah is elected President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, tasked to create a new political order and constitution for the Dominion of...
12 August 1947
Arbitral Tribunal Order published
The Arbitral Tribunal Order on the division and allocation of property, assets, and liabilities for India and Pakistan was published. The Order vested far-reaching powers...
13 August 1947
Radcliffe submits Boundary Commission Awards to Viceroy
Cyril Radcliffe, chairman of the Boundary Commission submits the Boundary Awards, which set the borders for India and Pakistan, to Viceroy Mountbatten. This meant that...
13 August 1947
Mountbatten leaves for Karachi
Viceroy Mountbatten visited Karachi for the formal transfer of power ceremony. Viceroy and Vicereine Mounbatten in Karachi, 14 August 1947 Source: BBC Urdu, Public domain,...
14 July 1947
Result of Sylhet referendum announced in favour of East Bengal
A referendum on the future of Sylhet district in what would become part of East Pakistan took place on 6th and 7th July 1947. Sylhetis...
14 August 1947
Mountbatten writes to Nehru and Jinnah suggesting that findings of Boundary Commission should be discussed on 16 August between representatives of India and Pakistan before awards are published
Viceroy Mountbatten remained hesitant to publish the boundary awards given the deteriorating security situation and need for co-ordination and co-operation between India and Pakistan. In...
14 August 1947
Pakistan Independence Celebrations in Karachi; Viceroy addresses Pakistan Constituent Assembly
Transfer of power ceremony takes place and independence for Pakistan is celebrated. Extract from Governor-General Mountbatten's speech to the Consituent Assembly of Pakistan on 14th...
14-15 August 1947
Midnight: Power transferred from Britain to India and Pakistan
Power was transferred to the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India on the stroke of midnight on 14/15th August 1947. As the midnight...
14 August 1947
Jinnah sworn in as Governor-General of Pakistan
Muhammad Ali Jinnah assumed the role of Governor-General on 14th August. The role was coveted by Mountbatten who wanted to be both Governor-General of India...
15 August 1947
Mountbatten sworn in as Governor-General of India; Independence Day Celebrations in Delhi
Louis Mountbatten was sworn in as Governor-General of India on 15 August. He retained the position until 21 June 1948. The office of Governor-General was...
16 July 1947
Last meeting of the Interim Government
The Interim Government or provisional government was established on 2nd September 1946. It was tasked to oversee the transition to independence. The last meeting of...
16 August 1946
Direct Action Day
Direct action was called by Muhammad Ali Jinnah after the 1946 Cabinet Mission proposals for an indepedent India failed to meet the expectations of both...
16 July 1947
Special request from Governor of the Punjab for as much advance intimation of date and content of Boundary Award as possible
Authorities in the Punjab had serious concerns about the outbreak of violence and a potential humanitarian crisis if the plans for partition were not revealed...
17 August 1972
Asians with Ugandan citizenship had to prove their citizenship
Asians with Ugandan citizenship had to produce documents of proof of their citizenship to the Immigration Office by 10th September. There was much confusion about...
17 July 1947
Sir Patrick Spens accepts appointment as Chairman of the Arbitral Tribunal
Patrick Spens, as chair of the Arbitral Tribunal, had the difficult task of determining the division of assets and liabilities between the Dominion of Pakistan...
17 July 1947
Sir C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar, Dewan of Travancore, declares Travancore will be an independent country from 15 August
The Dewan (prime minister) of Travancore was strongly opposed to the idea of accession to the Union of India. He expressed his disdain for the...
18 July 1947
Indian Independence Bill receives Royal Assent
Prime Minister Clement Attlee introduced the Indian Independence Bill to parliament on 4th July and after some consideration received royal assent on 18th July. Whilst...
19 July 1947
The Executive Council (Transitional Provisions) Order, re-constituting the Interim Government into two separate groups representing the two successor governments of India and Pakistan, published
The interim government that had been set up in September 1946 was no longer fit for purpose in light of plans for the creation of...
20 August 1972
Idi Amin addresses mass rally in Rukungiri
Idi Amin declared to a mass rally at Rukungiri, Kigeszi that all Asian commercial properties and businesses would be sold. He also declared that all...
20 July 1947
Result of referendum in North-West Frontier Province announced in favour of Pakistan
The North-West Frontier Province held a referendum on its future in July 1947. The referendum took place in an atmosphere of communal tension and violence...
20 July 1947
Mountbatten visits Lahore
The decision on the Indo-Pakistan border through the Punjab province was particularly sensitive due to the multi-faith make-up of the region and the location of...
21 February 1947
Appointment of Lord Louis Mountbatten as Viceroy
Louis Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy of India in the context of the failed Cabinet Mission and British labour government eager to leave India. Louis Mountbatten,...
22 July 1947
Partition Council on behalf of successor dominion governments approves statement pledging them to accept the awards of the Boundary Commission ‘whatever these may be’
Indian and Pakistani representatives agreed on principle to accept the decision of the Boundary Commission on the new borders. Viceroy Mountbatten writing to Secretary of...
22 July 1947
Partition Council approves the setting up of a Special Military Command under Major-General Rees from 1 August to safeguard the peace in the Punjab
There was a high likelihood of violence in the Punjab due to partition. This was particularly true of areas that were made up of mixed-faith...
22 August 1972
Assures President Nyerere of Tanzania that Asians would be paid for their sold possessions.
President Julius Nyerere came out in condemnation at the actions of Idi Amin and specifically on the issue of expulsion of Ugandan Asians with Ugandan...
25 July 1947
Mountbatten as Viceroy and Crown Representative addresses the Princes
The Indian princes were gathered in Delhi to speak with Viceroy Mountbatten, the representative of the British Crown. The creation of India and Pakistan would...
26 August 1972
Canada declares that it will set up an Immigration Office in Kampala, Kenya
In August 1972, the Canadian government resolved to admit 6,000 Ugandan Asians. An 'immigration team' was sent to Uganda and a temporary immigration office was...
27 September 1972
First chartered flight to Canada organised by the Canadian High Commission
First Canadian chartered flights for Ugandan Asians leave from Entebbe Airport. The Christian Science Monitor reported on the unfolding crisis with the following: "The United...
30 July 1947
Maharaja of Travancore accedes to the dominion of India
After initial rejection of accession to India or Pakistan, the Maharaja of Travancore, Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma climbed down from ambitions of sovereignty and agreed...
30-31 July 1947
Mountbatten visits Calcutta
Viceroy Mountbatten visited Calcutta amidst growing communal tension. Calcutta had been the scene of a mass outbreak of communal violence the previous year. The Viceroy...
30 August 1972
All Asians leaving Uganda had to declare their assets
All Asians leaving Uganda had to declare their assets. Asians were only allowed to take £50 per head of family. This meant that Ugandan Asians...
1920-1922
Non-Cooperation Movement
The Non-Cooperation Movement was led by the Indian National Congress under the leadership of 'Mahatma' Gandhi after the Amritsar Massacre. This was the first of...
1922
Egyptian Independence
Britain declared Egypt an independent state following the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 which sought freedom from British occupation. Control over foreign affairs, the army, communications,...
1926
Balfour Declaration
Not to be confused with the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the 1926 declaration made Britain's white settler colonies dominions of the British Commonwealth, namely Australia,...
1930 - 1932
Round Table Conferences
Indian political representatives were consulted by the British government on plans for reform of the government of India. Differences between groups emerged on issues of...
1931
Dominion status granted to South Africa
South Africa was granted dominion status after the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930.
1935
Government of India Act, 1935
Further political reforms were planned for India after 1919. This was seen in the Round Table Conferences between 1930-1932 in which Indian political representatives were...
1936-1937
Indian elections of 1936-37
Indian provincial elections were the first provincial elections held under the Government of India Act of 1935. The Indian National Congress won in 8 of...
1945 - 1946
Indian elections of 1945-46
The election results of 1945 and 1946 demonstrated the entrenchment of communal interests in Indian politics. This was also reflected in the almost innocuous sounding...
1945
Simla Conference
The Simla Conference was convened by Viceroy Wavell with an agenda to transform his executive council into a national government. The Indian National Congress and...
1947
Partition and Independence of India and Pakistan
The end of British rule in India was fraught with uncertainty and discord. The people of British India were in favour of independence. However, they...
1956
British Togo merged with the Gold Coast after plebiscite
The people of British Togo voted to merge with the Gold Coast to form what would become present-day Ghana. Polling station in Kumbungu, Northern Region,...
1957
Independence of Ghana
Ghana became an independent state within the British Commonwealth. First President of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah speaking on the day of Ghanian Independence: https://youtu.be/xf5CPacHt4Q President Kwame...
1959
The Wild Report
The 'Constitutional Committee Report' or 'Wild Report' was produced after deliberations of the Ugandan Constitutional Commitee were concluded. The Committee was set up by Governor...
1960s
Decolonisation of East Africa; Migration of Asians from various East African nations
The rapid decolonisation of East Africa had major consequences for the Asian population of the region. During the colonial period, Asians occupied a middle rank...
1960
PM Harold Macmillan in Cape Town warns white settlers that ‘the wind of change’ is blowing through Africa
British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan addressing South Africa's parliament declared that there was a need to accept the independence of British colonies in Africa given...
1960
Kenneth Kaunda elected President of UNIP in Northern Rhodesia
Kenneth Kaunda was one of the foremost politicians and independence campaigners in Northern Rhodesia. Under his leadership, the United Independence Party would go on to...
1960
Creation of independent Somali Republic
The Somali Republic was formed out of the colonial territories of Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland. Independence campaigners from the two territories came together to...
1960
Kenyatta is elected leader of KANU in Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta was a prominent political campaigner for Kenyan independence from Britain. His anti-colonial campaigning was met with hostility by white settlers and the colonial...
1960
Nigerian independence
After a period of self-rule under the British Crown from 1954, Nigeria became fully independent in 1960. After the enacting of a new constitution, Nigeria...
1961
Ugandan Constitutional Conference
The Ugandan Constitutional Conference was held at Lancaster House, London to draft plans for the independence of Uganda. A Times article reporting on the Conference...
1961
Independence of Sierra Leone
In 1960, a 24-person Sierra Leone delegation led by Milton Margai met British officials at Lancaster House, London to set out plans for independence. These...
1961
Independence of Tanganyika
The Tanganyika African National Union and the leadership of Julius Nyerere was central to late colonial developments leading to independence. TANU scored major successes in...
1962
Independence of Uganda
Many forces were at play leading up to Ugandan independence. After the Second World War, Britain and the other European colonial powers began a process...
1963
Independence of Kenya
Kenyan independence was preceded by constitutional reforms that created a new system of governance that sought greater involvement of Africans. These reforms were made all...
1963
Establishment of the Organization of African Unity
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was set up in the wake of the rapid retreat of formal empire in Africa. Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah...
1963
End of British Protectorate of Zanzibar
The Sultanate of Zanzibar was a British Protectorate between 1890 and 1963. Britain ended Zanzibar's protectorate status amidst growing political tensions within the multi-racial Zanzibari...
1964
Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania
Socio-political tensions in Zanzibar erupted into an outright revolution against the Sultan of Zanzibar. Revolutionary forces led by John Okello overthrew the Sultan and Abeid...
1964
Independence of Northern Rhodesia
Much like other British colonies and protectorates in Africa, Northern Rhodesia went through a number of constitutional changes in order to prepare the country for...
1964
Independence of Nyasaland
Nyasaland was part of a political federation with Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia from 1953. Federation was not favoured by the majority of the people...
1965
Unilateral Declaration of Independence of Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia was ruled by a powerful white-settler minority who were largely unwilling to follow the British template of independence which emphasised rule by the...
1966
Dissolution of Buganda
Buganda was the most powerful of the Ugandan kingdoms and was central to colonial-era developments. The kingdom was dissolved after Milton Obte's military coup bringing...
1967
Dissolution of Bunyoro
Bunyoro was a Kingdom within Uganda. It was dissolved during the military coup led by Milton Obote. This reflected the desire for a unitary state...
1968
Kenyan Asians denied work permits
The Kenyan government introduced the Kenyan Immigration Act of 1967 which meant that those without Kenyan citizenship would have to acquire work permits in order...
1968
UN sanctions on Rhodesia
Sanctions were imposed on Rhodesia under United Nations Security Council Resolution 253 amidst a civil war between the white minority government and African revolutionary forces...
1980
Independence of Rhodesia
Rhodesia differed from other former British colonies and protectorates in that the transfer of power did not occur as Britain had desired. The powerful white...
1997
Establishment of the Department for International Development
Under Tony Blair's Labour government, British foreign aid was made the domain of the newly established Department for International Development. This was a change from...
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