British and French appeasement at repeated German violation of its treaty obligations in the hopes of keeping the peace proved futile. Remilitarisation of the Rhineland which was a key security feature of the Treaty of Versailles was reneged on. The Rhineland was extremely important – it was occupied by the Allies as late as 1930. Without a German military presence in the region it could not mobilise on its eastern front without leaving itself exposed to the French on the western front. As such, the Rhineland effectively acted as a potential staging ground for an Allied or German offensive.

Gustav Stresemann’s ultimatum that Germany would refuse to make reparations payments unless Allied troops left the Rhineland and the subsequent signing of the Locarno Treaties, necessitated covert rearmament in France and the construction of extensive fortifications along the French border with Italy, Switzerland, Germany and Luxembourg.

The Abyssinian Crisis which saw the invasion of Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) by Mussolini’s Italy provided the opportunity for Hitler to militarise the Rhineland. A weak French response to Italian actions gave justification to Hitler’s re-militarisation. France wanted to maintain strong relations with Italy to counter Germany but this emboldened Hitler.

France placed sanctions on Italy on Britain’s insistence. Although France wanted good relations with Italy as a counter-weight to Germany, it ultimately valued Franco-British relations ahead of Franco-Italian relations. European disunity hampered efforts to overcome the Nazi threat. The Anglo-German Naval Pact (1935) was another sticking point between Britain and France.

Weak alliances between Britain, France, Italy and Russia emboldened Germany to re-militarise the Rhineland. Hitler was seeking to distract the German public from a domestic economic crisis whilst Britain had troops concentrated in the Mediterranean which provided further reason for re-militarisation. The Franco-Soviet Treaty of May 1935 was cited by Hitler as Franco-Russian encirclement and thus another justification for re-militarisation.

In January 1936, Hitler ordered troops to reoccupy the Rhineland. This action violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties of 1925. German annexation of Austria (Anschluss) was a bloodless coup that reflected popular support for political union. British and French consent to annexation of the Sudetenland in September 1938 also marked a changing order. The Sudetenland comprised German speaking territories in the newly created Czechoslovakia after WWI. German annexation of the Sudetenland was formalised with the recognition of a new border under the Munich Agreement of September 1938 in consultation with Britain, France and Italy, and the exclusion of Czechoslovakia. The Munich Agreement demonstrated the insignificance of the League of Nations and importance of Great Power unilateralism – collective security was effectively abandoned. The Munich agreement legitimised German, Polish and Hungarian annexation of Czechoslovakian territory. By March 1939, the German army had overrun Prague and created the Protectorates of Bohemia and Moravia.

France and Britain hoped that the Munich Agreement would secure peace in Europe however continued German violation of Czechoslovakian sovereignty finally convinced the Allies that war was inevitable. Allied guarantees to protect Polish sovereignty were restated and French and British military planning and co-ordination intensified. Britain and France increased arms production and in April 1939 Britain introduced peacetime conscription. Hitler’s insistence on annexing the Polish territory of Danzig ultimately led to the outbreak of the Second World War. Hitler sought Britain’s assent which never came. Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September and two days later Britain declared war on Germany on the 3^rd September 1939.

Indian troops being drilled in the use of bayonets. India, 1944.

(Source: Cecil Beaton, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons)

India

The Second World War had major consequences for British India. Whilst Britain had committed to greater self-government for India, the war made Indian politicians impatient for even greater change than had been promised prior to the outbreak of war. The Indian National Congress was unwilling to receive piece-meal concessions and would only be content with outright independence.

Britain was in debt to India, the latter becoming a financer of its war effort. India also provided the single largest colonial volunteer army to Britain’s cause with over 2.5 million Indian soldiers fighting the Axis powers under British command. Indian troops saw fighting in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. They were also instrumental in repulsing Japanese and Indian National Army forces in the late stages of the war.

By the end of the war, the cost of maintaining the empire exceeded funds received from India. Imperial rule of India was fast becoming unviable. America emerged as the western hegemon, replacing Britain in the liberal-western order. British dependence on American aid, the emerging Cold War, and the American desire for an end to European empire also put pressure on Britain to end 90 years of Crown Rule.